“Molecular typing of enteroviruses, adenoviruses and hepatitis A viruses in raw (untreated) and treated sewage water of a wastewater treatment plant in Greece”
P. Kokkinos · S. Filippidou ·K.Karlou· A.Vantarakis
Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Greece

The sewage treatment plant effluents may contain infectious human viruses representing a major public [...]

“Molecular typing of enteroviruses, adenoviruses and hepatitis A viruses in raw (untreated) and treated sewage water of a wastewater treatment plant in Greece”
P. Kokkinos · S. Filippidou ·K.Karlou· A.Vantarakis
Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, Medical School, University of Patras, Greece

The sewage treatment plant effluents may contain infectious human viruses representing a major public health issue. In the present study, a six months survey was conducted in order to evaluate the presence of enteroviruses (EV), adenoviruses (AdV), and hepatitis A viruses (HAV) in raw and treated sewage samples collected from a primary treatment wastewater plant, located at Alexandroupoli, in the North-Eastern Greece. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and nested polymerase chain reaction techniques have been applied for viral nucleic acid detection. Positive samples were confirmed by sequencing, and comparative phylogenetic analysis was performed on the isolated viral strains. EVs, AdVs, and HAV have been detected in 40% (10/25), 40% (10/25), 4% (1/25) of the samples collected from the inlet, and in 12% (3/25), 44% (11/25), 0% (0/25) of the samples collected from the outlet. Adenovirus types 3 (Ad3), 10 (Ad10) and 41 (Ad41), and hepatitis A virus type H2 have been recognized, while for enteroviruses Coxsackie type A2 and Echovirus types 27 and 30 have been recorded. The results reveal that treated sewage may still contain human viruses and thereby represent a potential health hazard. Moreover, this study shows the usefulness of molecular methods for virus detection, typing and virological quality analysis of sewage treatment plants.

Equivalency testing of TTC Tergitol 7 agar (ISO 9308-1:2000) with five culture media for the detection of E. coli in water samples in Greece.
Mavridou A, Smeti E, Mandilara G, Boufa P, Vagiona-Arvanitidou M, Vantarakis A, Vassilandonopoulou G, Pappa O, Roussia V, Tzouanopoulos A, [...]

Equivalency testing of TTC Tergitol 7 agar (ISO 9308-1:2000) with five culture media for the detection of E. coli in water samples in Greece.

Mavridou A, Smeti E, Mandilara G, Boufa P, Vagiona-Arvanitidou M, Vantarakis A, Vassilandonopoulou G, Pappa O, Roussia V, Tzouanopoulos A, Livadara M, Aisopou I, Maraka V, Nikolaou E.

Technological Educational Institution of Athens, Aigaleo 12210, Greece. amavridou@teiath.gr

“Recovery of melanized yeasts from Eastern Mediterranean beach sand associated with prevailing geochemical and marine flora patterns”
Efstratiou,M.A. & Velegraki,A

The melanized opportunistic pathogens Exophiala dermatitidis (Chaetothyriales) and Aureobasidium pullulans (Dothideales) were sporadically isolated from beach sand. This is the first time they are reported from bathing beach sand, thus providing updates on the conditions influencing [...]

“Recovery of melanized yeasts from Eastern Mediterranean beach sand associated with prevailing geochemical and marine flora patterns”
Efstratiou,M.A. & Velegraki,A

The melanized opportunistic pathogens Exophiala dermatitidis (Chaetothyriales) and Aureobasidium pullulans (Dothideales) were sporadically isolated from beach sand. This is the first time they are reported from bathing beach sand, thus providing updates on the conditions influencing the in situ black yeast community structure and raising public health concerns.

Do 2006/7/EC European Union Bathing Water Standards exclude the risk of contact with Salmonella or Candida albicans?
Efstratiou,M.A. & Tsirtsis,G

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of the recent (2006) European Union Directive concerning the management of bathing water quality to exclude the presence of pathogens from complying waters. Coastal water samples were [...]

Do 2006/7/EC European Union Bathing Water Standards exclude the risk of contact with Salmonella or Candida albicans?
Efstratiou,M.A. & Tsirtsis,G

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of the recent (2006) European Union Directive concerning the management of bathing water quality to exclude the presence of pathogens from complying waters. Coastal water samples were classified according to the Directive. 2.5% of ‘excellent’ water contained Salmonella and 39.2% Candida albicans 11.8% of samples in category ‘good’ were Salmonella positive and 35.2% were C.albicans positive. When the USEPA criterion for marine waters was applied to the same dataset, fewer samples complied, however 6.0% of the complying samples contained Salmonella. The results suggest that the bacterial indicator threshold levels for marine recreational water quality of the 2006/7/EC European Union Directive do not fully exclude contact of bathers with dangerous pathogens. Enterococci, if used as the sole index, appear to form a more reliable proxy of the risk of contact with Salmonella.

“Analysis of seawater microbiological quality data in Greece from 1997 to 2006: association of risk factors with bacterial indicators”
P.Papastergiou, V.Mouchtouri, M.Karanika, E.Kostara, F.Kolokythopoulou, N.Mpitsolas, A.Papaioannou and C. Hadjichristodoulou
This study deals with the examination of quality of seawater bathing areas in Greece over a 10-year period and identifies risk factors for high bacteria indicator organism concentrations. Qualitative [...]

“Analysis of seawater microbiological quality data in Greece from 1997 to 2006: association of risk factors with bacterial indicators”
P.Papastergiou, V.Mouchtouri, M.Karanika, E.Kostara, F.Kolokythopoulou, N.Mpitsolas, A.Papaioannou and C. Hadjichristodoulou

This study deals with the examination of quality of seawater bathing areas in Greece over a 10-year period and identifies risk factors for high bacteria indicator organism concentrations. Qualitative descriptive analysis was applied and the microbiological test results of 231,205 water samples were associated with pollution markers and other parameters. Measurements of Escherichia coli (99.6%) and enterococci (100%) were found to be in  accordance with the mandatory value guidelines set by the new European Directive. An increasing trend for the yearly mean value of faecal streptococci was noted. Using logistic regression analysis, phenolic smell (OR Ό 2.10, CI Ό 2.04-2.16), rainfall the day before sampling (OR Ό 1.67, CI Ό 1.64-1.74), high seas (OR Ό 1.42, CI Ό 1.39-1.46) and rainfall on the day of sampling (OR Ό 1.27, CI Ό 1.20-1.33) were positively independently associated with high levels of bacterial indicators (total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci and E. coli). The highest risk, absolute risk value 42.8% (RR Ό 3.17, CI Ό 2.97-3.38), was measured when previous day rainfall, phenolic smell and high seas were simultaneously recorded. Such parameters should be further investigated as predetermining factors for the assessment of beach bathing water quality, providing a timely indication of water risk assessment.

“Prediction of Salmonella in seawater by total and faecal coliforms and Enterococci”
Maria A. Efstratiou, Athena Mavridou, Clive Richardson
The power of total coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC) and Enterococci to predict the presence of Salmonella in seawater was investigated. Indicator cut-off values with the most satisfactory combination of sensitivity and specificity in predicting Salmonella presence [...]

“Prediction of Salmonella in seawater by total and faecal coliforms and Enterococci”
Maria A. Efstratiou, Athena Mavridou, Clive Richardson

The power of total coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC) and Enterococci to predict the presence of Salmonella in seawater was investigated. Indicator cut-off values with the most satisfactory combination of sensitivity and specificity in predicting Salmonella presence were 1000 CFU 100 ml¡1 TC, 200 CFU 100 ml¡1 FC, 500 CFU 100 ml¡1 Enterococci. When TC or FC were used for Salmonella prediction in logistic regression, then the addition of another indicator did not have a statistically significant effect. When Enterococci were  used for prediction, then the addition of either of the two other  indicators led to a statistically significant improvement (P = 0.001 for TC, P = 0.003 for FC). These results suggest that using either TC or FC alone provided an adequate indicator of Salmonella presence, but a statistically significant improvement is possible over using Enterococci alone. Concerning Enterococci, European Union limits for excellent coastal water quality (100 CFU 100 ml¡1) and United States  Environmental Protection Agency criteria for marine bathing waters (35 CFU 100 ml¡1) have the same value in predicting Salmonella absence (92.5%).

“Prevalence study of Legionella spp. contamination in Greek hospitals”
A.Mavridou, E.Smeti, G.Mandilara, O.Pappa, S.Plakadonaki, E.Grispou and M.Polemis
Water and swab samples were collected from 13 hospitals and analyzed for Legionella counts. Legionella was detected in eight out of 13 hospitals and in 22 of 130 water and swab-collected samples. A total of 72.7% of the strains were [...]

“Prevalence study of Legionella spp. contamination in Greek hospitals”
A.Mavridou, E.Smeti, G.Mandilara, O.Pappa, S.Plakadonaki, E.Grispou and M.Polemis

Water and swab samples were collected from 13 hospitals and analyzed for Legionella counts. Legionella was detected in eight out of 13 hospitals and in 22 of 130 water and swab-collected samples. A total of 72.7% of the strains were L. pneumophila ser. 1, 22.7% were L. pneumophila ser. 2-14, and 4.5% did not belong to any of these groups. AFLP typing of the L. pneumophila ser. 1 strains generated two distinguishable AFLP types. There was no significant correlation to the sample type with Legionella recovery. Legionella isolation was more likely to occur in the cooling towers than the water system. Water temperatures of 30-408C seem to favor Legionella growth. Of the 265 serum samples taken from the medical and technical staff for the control of IgG titre, 89.4% were negative, 7.2% were positive, and for 3.4% the result was doubtful. No association between IgG titre and maximum observed level of Legionella occurrence was detected.

“Microbiological quality of indoor and outdoor swimming pools in Greece: Investigation of the antibiotic resistance of the bacterial isolates”
C.Papadopoulou, V.Economou, H.Sakkas,P.Gousia, X.Giannakopoulos, C.Dontorou, G.Filioussis, H.Gessouli, P.Karanis, S.Leveidiotou
During 1997-2005, the microbiological quality and susceptibility of bacterial isolates of swimming pool waters were investigated. A total of 462 water samples were collected from three indoor swimming pools [...]

“Microbiological quality of indoor and outdoor swimming pools in Greece: Investigation of the antibiotic resistance of the bacterial isolates”
C.Papadopoulou, V.Economou, H.Sakkas,P.Gousia, X.Giannakopoulos, C.Dontorou, G.Filioussis, H.Gessouli, P.Karanis, S.Leveidiotou

During 1997-2005, the microbiological quality and susceptibility of bacterial isolates of swimming pool waters were investigated. A total of 462 water samples were collected from three indoor swimming pools (a teaching pool, a competition public pool, a hydrotherapy pool) and two outdoor swimming pools (a hotel semi-public and a residential private pool) in Northwestern Greece. All water samples were analyzed for the presence of bacteria, protozoa and fungi and susceptibility tests were performed for the bacterial isolates. Sixty-seven percent of the examined water samples conformed to the microbiological standards and 32.9% exceeded at least one of the indicated limits. Out of 107 bacterial isolates, 38 (35.5%) resistant strains were detected.Multi-resistant Pseudomonas alcaligenes, Leuconostoc, and Staphylococcus aureus (isolated from the teaching pool), Staphylococcus wernerii, Chryseobacterium indologenes and Ochrobactrum anthropi (isolated from the competition pool), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. fluorescens, Aeromonas hydrophila, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae and S. aureus (isolated from the hydrotherapy pool) and A. hydrophila (isolated from the hotel pool) were detected.  The swimming pool with the poorest microbiological quality (THC X500 cfu/ml in 12.1% of the samples, P. aeruginosa counts p1500 cfu/100 ml in 6% of the samples) and the highest prevalence of multi-resistant isolates (73.6%) was the hydrotherapy pool. No Cryptosporidium or Giardia cysts and no Legionella, Mycobacteria and Salmonella were detected, but there were isolations of Candida albicans, Aspergillus spp., Mucor spp., Alternaria spp., Rhizopus spp., Trichophyton spp., and Penicillium spp.

“Impact of intensive agricultural practices on drinking water quality in the EVROS Region (NE GREECE) by GIS analysis”
C. Nikolaidis & P. Mandalos & A. Vantarakis
Chemical fertilizers are used extensively in modern agriculture, in order to improve yield and productivity of agricultural products. However, nutrient leaching from agricultural soil into groundwater resources poses a major environmental and [...]

“Impact of intensive agricultural practices on drinking water quality in the EVROS Region (NE GREECE) by GIS analysis”
C. Nikolaidis & P. Mandalos & A. Vantarakis

Chemical fertilizers are used extensively in modern agriculture, in order to improve yield and productivity of agricultural products. However, nutrient leaching from agricultural soil into groundwater resources poses a major environmental and public health concern. The Evros region is one of the largest agricultural areas in Northern Greece, extending over 1.5 million acres of cultivated land. Many of its drinking water resources are of groundwater origin and lie within agricultural areas. In order to assess the impact of agricultural fertilizers on drinking water quality in this region, tap-water samples from 64 different locations were collected and analyzed for the presence of nitrates NO3, nitrites NO2 , ammonium NH4, sulfate SO2 4 and phosphate PO3 4.These chemicals were selected based on the information that ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate and inorganic phosphate were the primary fertilizers used in local crop production. NO3 , SO4  and PO4 levels exceeding accepted values were recorded in 6.25, 4.70 and 9.38% of all sampling points, respectively. NO2 and NH4 concentrations, on the other hand, were inside the permitted range. The data generated were introduced into a geographic information system (GIS) program for computer analysis and projection maps representing afflicted areas were created. Our results indicate a profound geographic correlation in the surface distribution of primary contaminants in areas of intensified agricultural production. Thus, drinking water pollution in these areas can be attributed to excessive fertilizer use from agricultural sources